Research

Oct 19th, 2010
The Impact of Treated Waste Water Usage On the Spread Of Microbial Antibiotic

Student: Eyal Tsitsianov
Advisors:  Dr. Dror Avisar and Dr. Uri Gophna

  • Environment
  • Hydrochemistry
  • Microbiology
  • Water
  • Environment
  • Hydrochemistry
  • Microbiology
  • Water
The increasing incidence rate of bacterial resistance to antibiotics is a well-known phenomenon, which has mostly been addressed in the context of antibiotic-resistant pathogens that are frequently encountered in hospitals and clinics. However, it has been found recently that other environments such as municipal waste/treated wastewater (effluents), rivers and in some cases ground water (including drinking water) and soils (exposed to treated wastewater) can contain residues of antibiotics (or their metabolites), along with a relatively high ratio of resistant bacteria.
 
This phenomenon is presumably the result of the high level of antibiotic consumption by households, the fact that most antibiotics undergo only partial metabolism in the human body (from where they are excreted, later to accumulate in urban wastewater), and the fact that most wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) processes can only reduce the level of antibiotic residues and resistant bacteria to a limited extent. These recent findings have raised many concerns – the major one being the potential spread of antibiotic resistance among bacteria in the environment. This is mostly a health concern, since it can potentially lead to a rise in the prevalence of resistant pathogenic bacteria. In addition, it can have a negative influence on the microbial community's structure and diversity, which can impact various biogeochemical cycles in nature that are dependent on specific microbial activities.
 
Since Israel is a leading country in the use of reclaimed wastewater for agriculture, and because residues of antibiotics and high ratios of resistant bacteria were found in local effluents, the concerns mentioned above are relevant to this country. Yet, since the residues of antibiotics in treated water are at concentrations that are usually six orders of magnitudes lower than the MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration for bacteria), and because resistant bacteria in effluents are often unable to flourish in new water and soil niches, the impact on microbial ecology remains unclear. It was found that in Israel, like other countries, secondary effluents and soils irrigated with them contain a higher ratio of resistant bacteria than natural water and soil environments.
 
In addition, resistant bacteria originally found in the effluents is the only factor responsible for the spread of antibiotic resistance between water and soil bacteria. Moreover, found that neither the usual concentrations of antibiotic residues in effluents (even at the high levels found in hospital wastewater), nor their general physiochemical characteristics alone, have an impact on the spread of antibiotic resistance, in either water or soil bacteria. Yet, regardless of the antibiotic-resistance phenomenon, these abiotic factors did have some limited impact on the microbial community's structure.  In light of these findings, one may therefore conclude that WWTP effluents should undergo efficient bacterial disinfection processes – which would be more effective than eliminating tiny concentrations of antibiotics from the water. Despite the research conclusions, assessing whether such an increase can cause a realistic environmental threat in terms of microbial ecology, which can even pose a danger to human health over time, was not one of our research objectives. Nonetheless, we believe that the approaches, methods and results from this study will serve as a base for the development of a suitable model to address these important questions in any future research.
 

Research

Jul 4th, 2010
The Pedestrian Realm On the Main & Mixed-Use Streets Of Cities in Israel

Student: Galit Yerushalmi
Advisors:  Prof. Moshe Margalith and Dr. Yodan Rofe

  • Architecture
  • Environment
  • Planning
  • Architecture
  • Environment
  • Planning

In recent years there is growing awareness of what happens on the urban street and of the health, social and environmental benefits of walking on foot and of spending time in the public domain. Awareness of the pedestrian situation permeates the road safety and injury field. This is mainly due to the large extent to which pedestrians are being injured out of all urban and interurban road accidents in Israel.

 

This study examines the connection between the pedestrian realm and how pedestrians feel on mixed use streets in city centers. The mixed use streets are the cities’ beating hearts and the location of many varied social activities. The connection between the physical elements and the dimensions of the public space allocated on the street for pedestrians’ activities, and how they feel on the mixed use streets in Israel, is not clear enough. The purpose of the study is to find the correlation between the physical space and the overall sense of being safe from injury.

 

This is achieved by studying the space division on a cross-section of the street among its various users: pedestrians and motorized traffic. The study’s hypothesis is that allocating a wide space for pedestrian activities relative to the street section effects and contributes to pedestrians’ sense of security on the street and to a generally better feeling. The inquiry focused on two main fields, the physical and the social, on the mixed use main streets. The study’s main conclusion is that certain physical components improve pedestrians’ general feeling and sense of safety from being injured by vehicles on the street. The main components which effect pedestrians’ feeling on the street are the street division ratio between the various users, connectivity and arterially, street furnishings which encourage social interaction and the presence of a colonnade.

 

The study succeeded in showing the correlation between the pedestrian realm’s size (the pavement) and pedestrians’ feeling on the street and the advantage of the relative size and street division between users measurement over the absolute size allocated. 

Research

Jun 9th, 2010
The Green Line and the Equator: Local Fair Trade and the Olive Oil Sector

Student: Natalia Gutkowski
Advisors:  Prof. Dan Rabinovich and Dr. Dafna DiSegni

  • Economics
  • Environment
  • Sociology
  • Economics
  • Environment
  • Sociology
This research paper is about the Fair Trade movement in Israel and the West Bank, focusing on the Fair Trade olive oil sector as a case study. The research applied ethnographic fieldwork and economic research and conceptualization and was undertaken between 2008-2010. 
 
The theoretical and methodological foundation of this work is based upon the Political Economy approach which highlights the relations between social units’ status and economic status, as well as the dependency between social units in development and underdevelopment processes. 
 
This paper handles three research questions:
  • It examines how the values and practices of the global Fair Trade movement are applied to the local reality and how environmental, political, economic and social aspects of locality are taken into account. 
  • It investigates the way in which the Fair Trade movement is institutionalized in Israel, focusing on the main agents in the field, namely social activists and business entrepreneurs. The dialectic move between the effects of political reality on the agents and their endeavors to create social change in face of this reality reveals the advantages and disadvantages of applying global activism forms to a local context that is greatly affected by the national conflict. 
  • It examines whether local Fair Trade has managed to contribute to sustainable development in the production of olive oil. This question is examined using the Environmental Kuzents Curve Hypothesis model. 
 
One fundamental finding of this work is the core-periphery relationship in the local olive oil sector which is characterized by the marginalization of the Palestinian who is also a citizen of Israel. This is due to the difference between traditional, mainly Palestinian, and modern, primarily Jewish, forms of agriculture. Moreover, this can also be attributed to the historic policy of depriving Palestinians allocations of water and land resources in Israel. Furthermore, the occupation has placed the Palestinian producer from the West Bank in a double inferiority relationship with regard to the Jewish producer and the Palestinian citizen of Israel acting as the middleman. However, development trends in the olive oil sector in the West Bank, including Fair Trade, are beginning to affect this power relation and advantages are being created for the Palestinians of the West Bank. 
 
Findings relating to the activity of the local fair Trade movement show that the local Fair Trade movement acts in response to the local political reality and not only the global market as is often the case with global Fair Trade movement. Israeli civil society movements have included Palestinian producers both from the West Bank and Israel in Fair Trade practices.  This can be seen as an exceptional move in relation to Fair Trade practices when the conflict between these groups is taken into account. In the West Bank, one can identify the tension between business oriented Fair Trade and activists for Social change. However, Fair Trade in the West Bank is adopted by the Establishment.
 
I contend that the way in which Fair Trade is constructed in Israel's public sphere finds itself in a dialectic position, with the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the occupation on the one hand and alternative globalization on the other hand. In this situation, the attempt to think about or implement Fair Trade in Israel places the social organizations and their activists in a position perceived by the typology of public discourse in Israel as political radicalism. The radical contestation is double: it challenges the common and widespread national capitalist ethic and the distinction of national identity as the basis of solidarity in Israeli “society”.  In the West Bank, the attitude to Fair Trade is more cohesive and coherent. Fair Trade is perceived by Palestinian participants and the establishment as strengthening the national struggle, social solidarity and also with global consumers and activists. 
 
Another finding of this work relates to the social environmental and economic development model that local Fair Trade offers. Fair Trade has brought environmental benefits, as well as economic growth processes for producers everywhere except in the management of olive press wastewater.  Nevertheless, I contend that Fair Trade in the West Bank has created opportunities for grassroots democratization processes and has eventually brought to and enhanced a development process which is different from the hypothesis of the Environmental Kuzents’ curve. This is shown by the fact that at low income conditions, research is being undertaken to improve waste water management and a massive transfer to organic certification is being implemented. Although most Western development passed through a stage of industrialized agriculture and environmental deterioration before achieving sustainable agriculture practices, the Fair Trade scheme shows that a rise in polluting practices is an unnecessary step for economic growth.  
 
This research indicates that even though olive oil wastewater is not as well managed as organic certification requires, massive certification of Palestinian producers has been undertaken. I argue that this failure is the consequence of the interface between Palestinian lack of national regulations and organic regulations. Since the policy regarding olive press wastewater management is determined locally, the Palestinian farmer has a comparative advantage compared to the Palestinian farmer from Israel who is subject to stronger environmental regulations on the path to achieving organic certification.  
Therefore this research contributes to the ongoing debate over Fair Trade and to the research into sustainable development alternatives in the developing world.

Research

May 26th, 2010
Reducing the Usage of Plastic Bags Through a Social Marketing Approach

Student: Tamir Gur
Advisors:  Prof. Jacob Hornik and Prof. Nurit Guttman

  • Environment
  • Management
  • Marketing
  • Media
  • Environment
  • Management
  • Marketing
  • Media
Over the last three decades, consumers' tendency of using plastic bags for packing and carrying goods in stores - has increased globally. Presently, the average global consumption of plastic bags is a few hundred-billions per year. Causes of this increase are the advantages attributed to plastic bags, their low market price and their free of charge distribution by retailers. However, plenty of bags find their way to the environment, polluting soil, water and air, harming animals and plants and reducing open spaces by enhancing waste volume. Due to this, efforts have been made around the world to reduce people's use of plastic bags and to promote the use of environmental alternatives.
 
This research examines a way of contributing to the reduction of plastic bags usage in the town of Kiriat Gat, through Social Marketing - a strategic approach for persuading and generating behavioral changes.
 
Research's findings offer a few important aspects and insights regarding the issue:
a) A deep understanding of how consumers perceive the costs, benefits and barriers of reducing plastic bag usage and of using alternatives; b) Consumers' positive stands and intentions towards reducing plastic bag usage are not enough, since certain barriers to this behavioral change need to be taken away or reduced; c) people are ready to give up plastic bags, providing that this step is "dictated from above", i.e - a governmental policy imposes on everyone to act so, and providing that they are offered alternatives not inferior to plastic bags in terms of perceived qualities and advantages.

Research

May 2nd, 2010
Ashkelon's Desalination Plant and the Red Brine Phenomenon: Chemo-

Student: Dror Drami
Advisors:  Dr. Avi Gottlieb and Dr. Nurit Kress

  • Chemistry
  • Ecology
  • Environment
  • Oceanography
  • Public Policy
  • Sociology
  • Water
  • Chemistry
  • Ecology
  • Environment
  • Oceanography
  • Public Policy
  • Sociology
  • Water
Desalination has increasingly been seen as an important element in dealing with water shortage particularly by countries which border the sea. In Israel, increase in water usage and dry years prompted the government to set a goal of 750 million m3 per year (MCM/Y) desalinated water by 2020. To date, there are three operational seawater desalination plants at the Mediterranean coast, producing ca. 240 MCM/Y by reverse osmosis (RO). The first plant was established in Ashkelon in August 2005, providing 110 MCM/Y desalinated water, the largest RO plant in the world at the time. The brine, containing chemicals used in the process, and the backwash of preliminary filtration stage; the latter containing ferric hydroxide, are discharged at the shore, next to the discharge of cooling waters of a power plant adjacent to the RO plant. The brine is discharged continuously while the backwash is discharged in pulses, their frequency depending on the seawater quality of the intake. The motivation of this research was the unexpected red plume observed at the outfall site attributed to ferric hydroxide, the coagulant used in the pretreatment, discharged with the backwash. Therefore, the questions asked were what are the environmental effects of the “red plume” and could the relevant authorities have predicted it’s appearance based on existing data. .
 
To answer that, this research integrated a multidisciplinary approach: the social aspect that ADD., and the oceanographic aspect that aimed to provide the scientific basis to determine the environmental effects and serve as a basis to the decision making process.   
 
The social aspect was designed to accommodate the perception that scientific knowledge alone cannot change policy. Therefore, the research aimed also to improve the interaction between scientists and policy makers. The red plume was taken as a case study to examine the role played by science in environmental management at three different levels: water policy, environmental policy and desalination policy, when the later connected between the two formers. Out of these three levels, a forth intangible level emerged: the role of science in policy making. Data were gathered from archival material of Israel Water Authority, press publications and from interviews with stakeholders. The data, sorted to 65 categories, were assembled into a narrative revealing a dispute created around the case. Stakeholders were divided into two groups: the skeptics that demanded to examine the red plume effects thoroughly and the advocates that argued that the effect is aesthetics at the most and demanded to proceed with the desalination project as is. 
 
The Marine and Coastal Environment Division (MCED) of the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) was one of the skeptics. It worked under constant pressure to join the national effort to promote the establishment of desalination plants and to ignore possible environmental problems. However, the red plume prompted MCED to focus on finding a legal solution for the problem. However, the law was not adequate to give a legal solution for this case and therefore MCED used its regulatory 

Research

Feb 18th, 2010
What is the importance of the Dog Parks as a part of the urban Public Open

Student: Maanit Ichilov
Advisors:  Prof. Dan Rabinovich and Prof. Izhak Schnell

  • Environment
  • Planning
  • Sociology
  • Environment
  • Planning
  • Sociology
Starting with the first dog park established in the United States some three decades ago, dog parks have been spreading and turned popular all over the globe, and through the last decade have well penetrated into Israel as well. The purpose of these dog parks is to serve as open areas for dogs, in which they can legally and safely be released free of their belts. While the law and regulations forbid releasing dogs from their belts in all municipalities, most of them still haven't set any solution by establishing legal dog parks, while many of the existing dog parks simply do not fulfill their mission. The research is exploring what is the importance of the dog parks as a part of the urban Public Open Spaces (POS).
 
This study found that dog parks play an important role in the lives of many dog owners.  For many it is a public open space for resting and refreshing. Moreover, the dog parks serve for social meetings with other dog owners. The common denominator advantage is stronger at the park in comparison with random meetings in the street, where starting a conversation and developing personal ties is less possible. This work recommends the authorities to recognize the dog users as potential users of POS who need the park services as much as any other groups using the urban POS. A thorough urban design will be possible with the widening of a research position dog owners as a unique community with specific characteristics and needs in the urban space and the understanding of the dog owners' community and their interface with other park users. In order to maximize the use and derived benefits the owners gain from the dog parks, authorities should fulfill their basic needs. Cooperation with the dog owners and potential users in the parks' design should be encouraged:  the parks shall be located within the neighborhoods’ open spaces, thus achieving common and daily access; sitting corners shall be designed in a way encouraging interactions between those wishing it, yet still providing privacy for those preferring it.
 
For places severely lacking open spaces, alternative solutions for some combination between public parks and dogs releasing have been suggested. The authorities shall cooperate with the public of users, both dog owners and non dog owners, in order to investigate and analyze the optimal design. 
 

Research

Feb 17th, 2010
Influence of Plant Richness and Urban Garden Structure On Bird Species Richness

Student: Yair Paker
Advisors:  Prof. Yoram Yom-Tov, Prof. Anat Barnea and Dr. Tal Alon-Mozes

  • Architecture
  • Biology
  • Ecology
  • Environment
  • Planning
  • Zoology
  • Architecture
  • Biology
  • Ecology
  • Environment
  • Planning
  • Zoology

This research aims to study the influence of plant species' richness and urban public gardens' spatial structure on bird species' abundance, diversity and community structure. The types of gardens selected for the research included thickets, in which a few tree species grow, gardens that contain lawns and different trees and shrub species, and gardens that resemble native thicket in which many trees and shrubs species grow. Observations were conducted once a month during winter and summer, and twice a month during spring and autumn migration, from January 2008 until May 2009. Bird species' richness was evaluated using the rarefaction curves method, and species diversity was calculated using the Shannon index.

 

The connection between the environmental variables and bird community structure was found to be significant. The research determines that open lawn areas were attractive to a few bird species, while the boundary of lawn and shrubs or trees was appealing to many. It is possible that small insectivorous birds that forage in open lawn need the shrubs and trees for cover. Information collected in this study can be used by urban landscape planners, in order to create gardens that would be appealing to many bird species.

Research

Feb 8th, 2010
The Relationship Between Environmental Policy and the Uses Of PRTR by the

Student: Efrat Katz
Advisors:  Dr. Avi Gottlieb and Dr. Dorit Kerret

  • Environment
  • Public Policy
  • Sociology
  • Environment
  • Public Policy
  • Sociology
A major characteristic of the environmental policy over the last two decades is the use of innovative policy tools based upon the involvement of additional players, except for the nation-state, in the process of policy making and implementation. Nowadays, cooperation between the different sectors i.e. industry, transparency and self regulation, became major and significant tools in defining the environmental policy. These tools, generally known as reflexive. The research explores whether reflexive environmental tools replace conventional mandatory measures? If not – Which is the ultimate combination of mandatory and reflexive tools for improving environmental performances and achieving policy aims? 
 
This research examining Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers (PRTRs) – an information disclosure policy tool based on the principle of transparency denotes openness to the public scrutiny. The underlying premise is that non-governmental organizations, investors, the media and citizens will make use of this information to bear pressure on polluting industries to reduce their emissions.
 
The important findings and results found that the industrial sector utilize the PRTR mostly for internal purposes of improving environmental and business performance and much less for interaction with stakeholders (i.e.: legislators, communities, media, investors). These results are telling because they run counter to theory that the provision of PRTR information will spur on-going contact between facilities and non-governmental actors likely to push for further reductions in releases. A possible conclusion is that the role of the PRTR as a motivator for community lever direct action might be fairly low. Nevertheless, the PRTR do serves as an environmental management tool for industry. It was, also, found that companies operating under more "strict" or mandatory environmental policy use the PRTR more intensively than companies under 'reflexive' environmental policy. Moreover, cooperation and better relations between the industrial sector and the authorities serves only to a point, a widespread use of the PRTR. It may be concluded that reflexive or networking policy tools, should not replace conventional deterrent measures, instead, the national environmental enforcement capacities enhance the utilization of PRTR data (and in generalization – reflexive tools) by industry, and maybe other actors. A model of environmental governance, which combines both deterrent and cooperation between actors, seems to be most constructive for an extensive use of the PRTR. Finally, the research found no evidence that the environmental regulations and the cooperation between industry and the authorities correlate with industrial emissions. There are no differences in the assessments of respondents of change in industrial emissions regardless of their perception of the environmental regulation, Nevertheless, it was found that the more the company uses the PRTR for internal need, it reports a grater reduction in its emission, However, the model introduced in this research did not indicate direct relations between the environmental policy and the use of PRTR.
 
It is recommend that the intensive use of the PRTR for internal uses, as an emission management tool, should be reflected, in a higher quality assurances requirements, which increase its reliability. It may, also, conclude that the state will continue to play a central role in governance in general and in the environmental policy in particular, regardless of the emergence of reflexive, voluntary policy tools.

Research

Oct 15th, 2009
Evaluation of An Educational Program: "The Use of Barn Owls And Kestrels

Student: Anat Levy
Advisors:  Prof. Yossi Leshem and Prof. Yuval Dror

 

  • Education
  • Environment
  • Zoology
  • Education
  • Environment
  • Zoology
This study measured the effects of an educational curriculum “Barn Owls and Falcons as Biological Pest Control in Agriculture” on students’ environmental literacy.  The study hypothesized that use of the educational curriculum would bring about changes in environmental knowledge, environmental awareness, attitudes towards the environment, faith in the ability of science and technology to solve environmental problems, environmental responsibility, and willingness to act on behalf of environment.  
 
Additionally, the study measured the association between the various components of environmental literacy, and influences on environmental literacy related to socioeconomic status and gender.  Finally, the potential of the curriculum was measured by testing the presentation of values, the organization of knowledge, and the didactic value of the material presented. The results indicate that a significant increase in environmental knowledge occurred between the pre- and post-test questionnaires.
 
In conclusion, this study demonstrates that students’ and teachers’ involvement in environmental issues has an effect on various elements of their environmental literacy.   Therefore, it is important to teach environmental studies in school and to train teachers in such.  Additionally, this educational curriculum demonstrates the advantages of connecting students and teachers to their immediate environment and local community and the necessity for an educational curriculum to include diverse tools and activities.  
 
This educational curriculum also illustrates the exclusion of activism and environmental ethics in the environmental education materials found in today’s educational system.

Research

Aug 2nd, 2009
Water Loss by Evapotranspiration and Salination of Municipal Effluent Treated

Student: Michal Ashkenazi
Advisors:  Prof. Avital Gasith and Prof. Hadas Saaroni

 

  • Climate
  • Ecology
  • Environment
  • Water
  • Climate
  • Ecology
  • Environment
  • Water
In regions of water scarcity such as Israel reclaimed wastewater is an important resource for different reuses including stream rehabilitation. The latter requires higher than secondary effluent quality. In this study we examined constructed wetland (CW) technology with respect to water loss. It is an environmental friendly, low-tech approach for upgrading wastewater of diverse qualities. This technology involves flow of effluent through a porous substrate (e.g., gravel) planted with hydrophytes. As effluent flows through the system physical, chemical and biological processes remove pollutants from the water.
 
Hydrophytes are usually wasteful of water losing it in transpiration that is added to the water lost by evaporation from the system surface. Evapotranspiration (ET) rate is expected to be species specific and influenced by meteorological conditions. Water loss during late spring and summer and the change in electric conductance (EC) was tested in two sub-surface vertical flow systems (VSSF) with selected hydrophytes at the Shafdan Water Treatment site (central coastal plain). Our finding support those reported by others that ET is significantly influenced by weather conditions. The factors influencing ET significantly are solar irradiance, temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity. We have shown for the first time that shading reduced ET up to 50% in microcosms.
 
Unexpectedly reducing wind velocity by plastic fencing of the microcosms had not reduced ET. This may be explained by the temperature increase in the enclosed area. Little has been reported on water loss in subsurface CW systems.  ET measured in the microcosms system exhibited diurnal dynamics. In the present study as well as others a negative water loss (i.e water gain) was recorded. We attribute this result to contribution of water by dew.   Highest ET was found for Scirpus holoschoenus, Canna zankri, Cyperus papyrus hasphen and Phragmites australis. Lowest ET was found in Tamarix aphylla (small plants - cuttings), in Halimione portulacoides and Juncus fontanesii. In a given hydrophyte lowering of the above-ground biomass (by cutting) reduced ET. Our findings indicate that ET in vertical sub-surface flow CWs is relatively small and should not limit the use of this technology in Mediterranean-climate regions. Moreover, we showed that shading can reduce water loss significantly. 
 
Salination of the treated effluent as a result of ET is another factor of concern in CW technology, especially when reclaimed wastewater is aimed for irrigation. The limited change in salinity should not affect the decision of using the effluent for irrigation, but will increase the rate of salt accumulation in the soil. In the near future when the fraction of desalinated water in the water budget will become more, the salinity of the effluent will decline and so will the significance of the increase in salinity by CWs.
 
In summary, our findings suggest that ET and salination in CWs in the central coast plain of Israel should not limit their use for effluent upgrade. Reduction in water loss and salination can be obtained by shading as well as by using plant-free CWs. The evaluation of ET and salination in CWs should be extended to more arid regions of the country. 

Research

Jul 5th, 2009
The Effectiveness of the Ministry of Environmental Protection'S

Student: Hadar Yuhas
Advisors:  Dr. David Schorr and Prof. Alon Tal

  • Environment
  • Law
  • Environment
  • Law

Israel's enforcement program at the Ministry of Environmental Protection is divided into two distinct stages: an administrative enforcement phase and a criminal enforcement phase. Administrative activities are initiated by the Ministry's District Directors and include letters of warning, on-site inspections, hearings, fines, etc. Criminal enforcement includes criminal investigations and prosecutions, while its primary actors are the Green Police and the Ministry's legal department. While the systems complement one another to a large extent, for many years there has been a debate about the relative effectiveness of each.

 

The administrative track is typically considered faster, less costly in terms of government resources and more predictable in terms of outcome, whereas criminal prosecutions are considered as providing greater deterrence and in many cases as generating more significant penalties. The research focuses on the administrative procedures and seeks to evaluate their effectiveness as to their impact on the polluter’s behavior.

 

The assumption is that administrative procedures, which in many cases are the first stage of the enforcement process, can be effective even without the threat of criminal prosecution and ensuing sanction. This study seeks to identify those cases where the administrative enforcement procedures may be effective.
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